It seems obvious to control pain after surgery, an injury, or during a painful illness like pancreatitis. But in fact, the practice of pain management has not always been widespread in veterinary medicine. The acknowledgement that our pets do indeed experience emotions like pain was not always a popular belief. Even in human medicine, pain is often under-treated. It is proven that untreated pain suppresses the immune system, delays healing, and prolongs recovery from surgery. It is our greatest responsibility as the caretakers of our pets to alleviate suffering, and there are fortunately many options available to ensure that we are successful.

Pain can be articulated by people. However in pets, it must be observed and measured. There are several pain scales that veterinarians can use to anticipate and measure pain. Dogs and cats exhibit pain differently than people except in the case of acute, excruciating pain where vocalizing occurs. Being pack animals, dogs tend to keep a low profile, staying away from others including human family members. They may refuse food and be defensive, cowering and growling or snapping in anticipation of discomfort. Cats will also hide and guard their wounds, and both dogs and cats may over-groom a tender area. Pain is also measured by empirical methods, assuming that an animal would feel the equivalent of a human after experiencing surgery, trauma, or an illness. Increased blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate may also be used as indicators of pain.

Treatment for pain depends completely on the source and severity of discomfort. Medications, physical therapy, alternative therapies such as acupuncture, and other palliative measures can all be used alone or in combination. Multi-modal approaches to pain control tend to be the most effective.

For minor pain, heat and compression can give relief. Cold increases the perception of pain. Range of motion exercises can keep an arthritic animal limber and strong. There are specialists in physical therapy that utilize tools like water treadmills to increase flexibility and avoid muscle wasting caused by chronic pain.

Medications that alleviate pain are called analgesics. There are different categories of analgesics which have different mechanisms of action. Drugs are used for moderate to severe forms of pain. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are useful for conditions like arthritis where pain relief is best achieved when inflammation in the joints is controlled. Opiates are reserved for severe pain, like after major surgery. They are usually not given long term because of the potential for side effects on the GI tract like constipation. Opiate drugs come in oral, injectable, and transdermal forms. Local anesthetics can be injected into the tissues around a surgical incision to completely numb the site. Just as in humans, epidurals can be given by injecting an opiate directly into the spinal canal, completely blocking the nerve pathways for entire regions of the body.

Pain should be assumed, predicted, and preemptively controlled in our pets. Because we can not tell an animal “this is going to hurt a bit”, even minor pain can affect their health and wellbeing significantly.

When an animal (or human) consumes any type of food, it is broken down into simple sugars in the digestive tract. These simple sugars are readily available to provide instant energy to cells and organs including the heart and the brain. Extra energy (glucose) that is not needed by the body is converted by the liver into fat to be utilized when food is scarce. The problem in house pets is that food is never scarce. No one likes to see their beloved pet go hungry. Fat is continually accumulated which begins to cause problems elsewhere in the body.

The body was designed to carry a certain amount of fat to provide energy between meals. Canines in the wild, like wolves and coyotes, go long stretches between meals. Therefore storing some fat is a healthy and necessary function. Feral cats on the other hand, eat small meals of protein throughout the day and do not store much fat at all. In fact, this characteristic of felines makes them susceptible to a specific liver problem if they are allowed to become obese and for some reason stop eating. Cats were not designed to burn fat stores efficiently, and instead the liver becomes clogged with fat leading to failure (hepatic lipidosis).

Some connections between obesity and disease are easy to realize. Joints can be over-burdened by carrying too much weight and develop arthritis, an inflammatory reaction that causes pain. Furthermore, the dog or cat can rupture a cruciate ligament in the knee from being overloaded. Overweight pets are more likely to develop a herniated disc in the spine which can cause a great deal of pain or even paralysis.

Other obesity related problems are less obvious, but equally as devastating. Excess body fat can contribute to becoming diabetic. Diabetes is a serious disease that causes blood sugar levels to soar uncontrollably leading to all sorts of ill effects. Overweight pets are more susceptible to heat stroke because dogs and cats do not sweat to cool themselves, and the fat acts as an insulating blanket over the body. Respiratory problems and heart disease are caused by and complicated by obesity. Overweight pets are also at increased risk during anesthetic and surgical procedures.

Overall, obesity reduces quality of life and shortens lifespan. One Purina study showed that dogs with ideal body conditions live on average 15% longer than obese pets.

Feeding regimens are the first place to start when addressing obesity. Two or three small meals a day, rather than free-choice feeding (keeping a full bowl), allows the body to utilize calories more efficiently and store less fat. Feeding a balanced, nutritious diet formulated for a dog or a cat of a specific age and activity level is equally important. The amount to feed depends on the metabolism of the individual. Table scraps tend to be high in fats and salt. They are often given in addition to the pet’s regular diet that already contains an adequate number of calories for energy.

The other way to prevent obesity is to increase a pet’s activity levels. This can be difficult with an already obese dog or cat because their stamina may be decreased. They may already suffer from the side effects of being overweight. Consult a veterinarian about how much activity is appropriate for your pet. As weight comes off, you will see a considerable change in the dog or cat’s attitude and energy levels. What was once thought of as an old lazy pet can regain the pep of a young healthy animal.

It is important to not cause weight loss too quickly. Starvation is not the answer to obesity. Cats cannot metabolize fat rapidly without serious ill-effects. Check with a veterinarian to establish an ideal weight and timeline for weight loss.

Our pets will thank us for helping them maintain an ideal body weight. They will live longer and happier lives as a result.

Other names:

• Caniche
• French Poodle

Country/Date of origin:

• Germany
• 1400’s

Height:

• 10 inches or less

Weight:

• 5 to 7 pounds

Personality:

• Candidate for most intelligent breed of dog.
• Extremely willing to please.
• Happy, lively, and playful.
• Easily trained.
• Friendly and outgoing.
• Poodles love everybody.
• An excellent family dog for those who are prepared to maintain the coat.

History:

The Poodle originated in Germany as a water retriever (Pudel means water in German).  Today there are three sizes:  toy, miniature, and standard.  They are all judged by the same standard of perfection and are identical in every respect except height.  The toy, which is the smallest of the three varieties, is a miniaturized version of the Standard.  This diminutive Poodle was never used for sporting purposes. It was, instead, the pampered darling of the French nobility.

Body Type:

• A squarely-built, active dog that carries itself with dignity.
• Hanging ears are not altered.
• Upright tail is carried at an angle to the body.  It is docked.

Coat:

• The long coat of the poodle is double.  The outercoat is wiry curls.  The undercoat is thick and woolly.
• If unhindered, the outercoat forms thin cylindrical mats known as cords.  Corded Poodles are rarely seen in the United States because they are difficult to keep clean.
• Any solid color is permitted.  Common ones are black, white, apricot, brown, blue, or silver.
• The skin color of Poodles varies.  Skin may be pink, blue, silver, or cream.
• Requires professional grooming every five or six weeks.
• Two clips are allowed in the United States show ring:  the Continental and the English Saddle.  Puppies are exempted from this and can be shown in a puppy clip (their hair isn’t long enough to accommodate the adult clips) until they are one-year old.
• The face, feet, and base of tail are shaved in all the clips.
• A full coat may take two years to develop.

Health and Wellness:

• The immense popularity of this breed has resulted in many genetic defects.
• Autoimmune thyroid disease.
• Patent ductus arteriosis.
• Tetralogy of Fallot.
• Von Willebrand’s disease.
• Distichiasis.
• Portosystemic shunt.
• Legg-Perthes disease.
• Congenital deafness.
• Cataracts.
• Diabetes mellitus.
• Addison’s disease.
• Atopy.
• Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA).
• Immune mediated thrombocytopenia (IMT).
• Urolithiasis (oxalate and struvite).
• Collapsing trachea.
• Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis.
• Sialocele.
• Cushing’s syndrome (PDH and AT).
• Mitral insufficiency.
• Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD).
• Sebaceous adenomas.

What you should know:

• In spite of the name, the French Poodle is not Gallic.  It is a breed made in Germany.
• The pompoms and topknots of the Poodle had a utilitarian origin.  As water retrievers, Poodles needed the chest and head hair to protect vital organs from the cold.  The pompoms are placed on the joints to protect them from becoming arthritic.
• Victorian merchants often had advertisements cut into the coats of Poodles, and hired someone to walk the dog around.  A sort of living billboard.
• Grooming contests attract international teams, clipping Poodles into artistic creations.  Prizes are in the thousands of dollars.
• The smaller varieties of Poodle are used as truffle sniffers.
• Poodles are beautiful and they know it.  You might even describe them as vain.
• Love to be pampered, and it is easy to spoil these adorable clowns.

Other names/Nicknames:

• Caniche
• French Poodle

Country/Date of origin:

• Germany
• 1400’s

Height:

• Over 15 inches (average is 25 inches)

Weight:

• 50 to 55 pounds

Personality:

• Candidate for most intelligent breed of dog.
• Extremely willing to please.
• Happy, lively, and playful.
• Easily trained.
• Friendly and outgoing.
• Poodles love everybody, although the Standard size is less accepting of strangers.
• An excellent family dog for those who are prepared to maintain the coat.

History:

The Poodle originated in Germany as a water retriever (Pudel means water in German).  Today there are three sizes:  toy, miniature and standard.  They are all judged by the same standard of perfection and are identical in every respect except height.   The standard, or largest size, is thought to be the original Poodle.  Although the American Kennel Club (AKC) classifies it as a non-sporting breed, it still retains its hunting abilities and remains an exceptional swimmer.  The Standard is often seen in circuses and obedience rings.

Body Type:

• A squarely-built, active dog that carries itself with dignity.
• Hanging ears are not altered.
• Upright tail is carried at an angle to the body and is docked.

Coat:

• The long coat of the poodle is double.  The outercoat is wiry curls.  The undercoat is thick and woolly.
• If unhindered, the outercoat forms thin cylindrical mats known as cords.  Corded Poodles are rarely seen in the United States because they are difficult to keep clean.
• Any solid color is permitted.  The most common colors are black and white.  Apricot, brown, blue, and silver are possible.
• The skin color of Poodles varies.  Skin may be pink, blue, silver, or cream.
• Requires professional grooming every five or six weeks.
• Two clips are allowed in the United States show ring:  the Continental and the English Saddle.  Puppies are exempted from this and can be shown in a puppy clip (their hair isn’t long enough to accommodate the adult clips) until they are one-year old.
• The face, feet, and base of tail are shaved in all the clips.
• A full coat may take two years to develop.

Health and Wellness:

• Subject to less genetic problems than the smaller sizes, probably because it has never been overbred.
• Hip dysplasia.
• Autoimmune thyroid disease.
• Gastric dilatation and volvulus syndrome (GDV, also commonly called bloat)
• Patent ductus arteriosis.
• Tetralogy of Fallot.
• von Willebrand’s disease.
• Portosystemic shunt.
• Metabolic bone disease.
• Cataracts.
• Diabetes mellitus.
• Addison’s disease.
• Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA).
• Immune mediated thrombocytopenia (IMT).
• Idiopathic epilepsy.
• Sebaceous adenitis.
• Urolithiasis (oxalate and struvite).
• Chronic hepatitis.
• Cushing’s syndrome (PDH and AT).
• Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD).
• Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) (digit, black Standard).
• Sebaceous adenomas.

What you shouldl know:

• In spite of the name, the French Poodle is not Gallic. It is a breed Made in Germany.
• The pompoms and topknots of the Poodle, which seem so frivolous, had a utilitarian origin. Water retrievers, the Poodles needed the chest and head hair to protect vital organs from the cold. The pompoms, you will notice, are placed on the joints to protect them from becoming arthritic.
• Victorian merchants often had advertisements cut into the coat of a Poodle and hired someone to walk around with the dog. Sort of a living billboard. Grooming contests attract international teams which clip Poodles into artistic creations. Prizes are in the thousands of dollars.
• Poodles are beautiful and they know it. You might even describe them as vain.
• Love to be pampered and it is easy to spoil these adorable clowns.
• Does not shed.
• Suggested for allergy sufferers.

Other names/Nicknames:

• Caniche
• French Poodle

Country/Date of origin:

• Germany
• 1400’s

Height:

• 10 to 15 inches

Weight:

• 15 to 16 pounds

Personality:

• Candidate for most intelligent breed of dog.
• Extremely willing to please.
• Happy, lively, and playful.
• Easily trained.
• Friendly and outgoing.
• Poodles love everybody.
• An excellent family dog for those who are prepared to maintain the coat.

History:

The Poodle originated in Germany as a water retriever.  Pudel means water in German.  Today there are three sizes: toy, miniature and standard.  All sizes are judged by the same standard of perfection and are identical in every respect except height and weight.  The miniature, middle of the three varieties, is a miniaturized version of the Standard.  It is thought that the Miniature Poodle was not used for sporting purposes.  It was, instead, the pampered darling of the French nobility.  Some were used as truffle hunters because of their trainability and good noses.  They have gained renown as performers in the circus ring.  Today, the Miniature version is the most popular of the Poodles.  It is one of the most popular dogs in the whole world.

Body Type:

• A squarely-built, active dog that carries itself with dignity.
• Standard does not specify weight but given weight is an average.
• Hanging ears are not altered.
• Upright tail is carried at an angle to the body.  It is docked.

Coat:

• The long coat of the poodle is double.  The outercoat is wiry curls.  The undercoat is thick and woolly.
• If unhindered, the outercoat forms thin cylindrical mats known as cords.  Corded Poodles are rarely seen in the United States because they are difficult to keep clean.
• Any solid color is permitted. Common colors are black, white, apricot, brown, blue, or silver.
• The skin color of Poodles varies.  Skin may be pink, blue, silver, or cream.
• Requires professional grooming every five or six weeks.
• Two clips are allowed in the United States show ring: the Continental and the English Saddle.  Puppies are exempted from this and can be shown in a puppy clip (their hair isn’t long enough to accommodate the adult clips) until they are one-year old.
• The face, feet, and base of tail are shaved in all the clips.
• A full coat may take two years to develop.

Health and Wellness:

• The immense popularity of this breed has resulted in many genetic defects.
• Autoimmune thyroid disease.
• Patent ductus areteriosis.
• Tetralogy of Fallot.
• von Willebrand’s disease.
• Distichiasis.
• Glaucoma.
• Epiphora.
• Portosystemic shunt.
• Legg-Perthes disease.
• Congenital deafness.
• cataracts.
• Diabetes mellitus.
• Addision’s disease.
• Atopy.
• Urolithiasis (oxalate and struvite).
• Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA).
• Immune mediated thrombocytopenia (IMT).
• Progressive retinal atrophy.
• Collapsing trachea.
• Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis.
• Sialocele.
• Cushing’s syndrome (PDH and AT).
• Mitral insufficiency.
• Intervertebral disc disease.
• Sebaceous adenomas.

What you should know:

• In spite of the name, the French Poodle is not Gallic.  It is a breed made in Germany.
• The pompoms and topknots of the Poodle, which seem so frivolous, had a utilitarian origin.  As water retrievers, Poodles needed the chest and head hair to protect vital organs from the cold.  The pompoms are placed on the joints to protect them from becoming arthritic.
• Victorian merchants often had advertisements cut into the coat of a Poodle, and hired someone to walk around with the dog.  Sort of a living billboard.
• Grooming contests attract international teams, clipping Poodles into artistic creations.  Prizes are in the thousands of dollars.
• Poodles are beautiful and they know it.  You might even describe them as vain.
• Love to be pampered, and it is easy to spoil these adorable clowns.
• Does not shed.
• Suggested for allergy sufferers.

Other names/Nicknames:

• Ruby Spaniel
• King Charles Spaniel
• Blenheim Spaniel
• Prince Charles Spaniel

Country/Date of origin:

• England
• 1600’s

Height:

• 10 to 11 inches at shoulder

Weight:

• 8 to 14 pounds

Personality:

• Despite its scowling visage, this is a merry-hearted dog.
• Likes its comfort.
• Gets along well with other pets.
• Attentive but not demanding.
• It is a clingy kind of dog that doesn’t want to leave your side.
• Not outgoing with strangers.

History:

The early history of these little lap dogs is not clearly defined.  It is thought they originated in China and arrived in England via Europe.  For hundreds of years, they have been the pampered darlings of English royalty.  They have a lingering hunting instinct, which probably indicates that they were crossbred with small Cocker or Springer Spaniels over the years.  It is not known, however, if they were ever used for hunting purposes.  There are four varieties that are identical except for coloring.  One of the foundation breeds of the American Kennel Club (AKC).

Body Type:

• A miniature spaniel in appearance, with a short tail and pushed in face.
• Hanging ears are so long they touch or almost touch the ground.  They are not altered.
• Docked tail is cut to about 1-1/2 inches and is covered with hair that is 3 or 4 inches in length.
• The tail is not carried above the level of the back.
• Docking is optional, and dogs with long tails are often seen.
• The very short face has a wide, turned-up muzzle.
• The head is domed and is one of the most important points of the breed.
• Protruding tongue is a serious fault.

Coat:

• The coat is moderately long, very thick, and wavy but not curly.
• The ears and feet are especially heavily coated.
• In the Black-and-Tan, the hair on the ears is longer than that of the other varieties.
• There are four allowed color patterns:  Ruby—a solid ruby red; Black and Tan ( King Charles)—a black body with tan points; Blenheim—a white ground coat with patches of red chestnut (a blaze of white, extending up the forehead and ending in a loop with a red dot in the center, is required for this color); and Tricolor (Prince Charles)—which is a white ground dog with black patches and tan spots over the eyes, on the muzzle, chest, and legs. The ears and vent should also be lined with tan.
• Moderate grooming.

Health and Wellness:

• Large, prominent eyes are subject to injury and infection.
• Pushed in face may cause breathing problems.
• Dislocation of joints.
• Ear infections cause by lack of air circulating around the heavily coated, hanging, leathers.
• Large head causes whelping difficulties.

What you should know:

• Low exercise requirements make this an ideal dog for older people.
• Hard to train to do traditional obedience exercises, but good manners seem to be inbred in the Toy Spaniel.
• Mary, Queen of Scots, went to the scaffold with one of these little dogs that refused to leave her side.

There are many sizes and varieties of endoscopes, but there are two basic types: flexible and rigid. Which one the surgeon uses is a matter of preference and depends on the surgery.

The kinds of procedures that may be performed using an endoscope are numerous. A biopsy of the stomach wall or colon is obtainable without the need for a laparotomy, or opening of the abdominal cavity. A very small incision through the abdominal wall however, will allow a surgeon using a scope to biopsy the liver and other organs easily. A smaller incision means less chance of introducing infection. Arthroscopy is a surgical method of using a very small scope to visualize the inside of the joints. Exploration of the thorax is possible without artificial respiration.

Ultimately, the endoscope is a remarkable advancement in surgical technique. It reduces the size of incisions, minimizing bleeding and risk of infection. It speeds healing times greatly, allowing pets to return to normal activity much more quickly than after conventional surgery. The use of an endoscope also reduces pain associated with surgery since less trauma is caused to body tissues during the procedures. There are situations where the use of an endoscope is not ideal, but usually the endoscope offers superior results to the scalpel.

Cats have retractable claws. Their “fingers” have three bones and joints just like ours. The individual bones are called phalanges. Human fingers can only be flexed toward the palm and relaxed into a straight, pointing position. The last or third phalanx of a cat can be extended upward as well as flexed downward. At rest, the third phalanx and toenail are retracted upward off of the ground. This means the cat does not bear weight on the last bone while standing. For this reason, the last bone can be amputated without affecting the cat’s ability to stand. This is not as true for the rear feet, because most cats bear partial weight on the rear third phalanges. And, when propelling themselves forward, the rear toes flex downward in order to gain traction. Most veterinarians agree that cats’ rear feet should not be declawed. Most complications occur from declawing the rear feet.

Declawing is a surgical procedure performed under a general anesthetic. Pre-operative blood work is done to rule out subclinical infection, anemia, and clotting deficiency. There are several techniques employed to declaw a cat. It is up to the veterinarian to choose the technique with which they are most comfortable and familiar. The doctor may use a scalpel, a guillotine blade, or a laser to perform the amputation of the third phalanx. The incision may either be sutured or closed with tissue adhesive. The feet are then wrapped with a light compression bandage and the cat is confined to cage rest for 12 to 24 hours after surgery.

The pain management protocol that is used during a declaw greatly influences the outcome, both short-term and long-term, after surgery. The specific drugs and techniques are again up to the veterinarian. Opiates such as Fentanyl, morphine, and buprenorphine are given before surgery to block pain and provide a comfortable recovery. Injections may be repeated after the declaw, and they are sometimes combined with an NSAID injection to utilize a multi-modal approach to pain control. Carpal ring blocks and digital blocks provide analgesia by injecting long-acting local anesthetics like bupivacaine around the regional nerves associated with the feet. This can last for as long as 8 hours after surgery. A Fentanyl trans-dermal patch or oral opiates are sent home with the cat to provide extended pain control. Symptoms of pain include hiding and refusing food. Be sure to let your veterinarian know if you suspect your cat is in pain.

Complications from declawing can be bleeding, infection, limping, and re-growth of the toenail when the nail bed was not adequately excised.

There are many different medical conditions that may cause your pet to begin eliminating in unwanted areas. It is important for your veterinarian to perform a complete examination and, perhaps, other tests to determine if there is a medical condition that would precipitate the behavior. Some of the medical conditions that your veterinarian would look for are diseases of the urinary tract, liver, kidneys or endocrine system. Many of these diseases can cause pain when urinating or may cause increased fluid intake and excretion. Other diseases of the colon and digestive tract may also cause defecation problems. When examining your cat for medical causes, your veterinarian will also look for limitations in motor and mobility functions. If your pet is having difficulty with its senses, joints or other muscular issues it may not be able to access its current litter box as easily and, therefore, result in unwanted elimination behaviors.

At times, some cats may experience an aversion to their current litter or litter boxes. These aversions may be due to smell, size or the tactile sensation. If your pet has started to eliminate in unwanted areas, analyze where the behavior occurs, the type of substrate, the time of day, and the frequency with which the animal demonstrates the behavior. Your pet may demonstrate these behaviors if the litter box is located in an undesirable area. Area that are considered undesirable vary by pet, but are often high traffic areas, areas that are far away from all family members, such as basements, or areas that are inhabited by many pets. Determine the type of substrate your pet prefers to eliminate on, such as hard surfaces or on carpet. Some pet owners notice that their pets only practice the unwanted elimination behaviors at specific times of day, such as when the owners are preparing to leave or when a child returns home from school. Other animals may demonstrate these behaviors when their box is cleaned, due to an aversion to the scent of the cleaners used.

In order to minimize unwanted elimination behaviors it may be necessary to try many different combinations of location, litter and box, until your cat is satisfied with its new litter box. Begin by offering your pet two litter boxes. One box should remain in the current location and the other should present a new option of box, litter or location. Once your pet demonstrates a preference for a new choices, change the first box to that choice and keep offering new options with the second. This process will allow you to find the perfect match for your pet.

Some ideas for determining different animals preferences include: For a cat that location appears to be the problem, work to move the new box to a quite are of the home. If your pet prefers to eliminate on a specific type of substrate, mimic that feeling in the litter box. For example, for a cat that prefers to eliminate on tile, linoleum, or another hard surface, line the litter box with newspaper or a fine layer of litter over plastic; for a cat that prefers carpet, line the rim of the box with carpet and place a fluffy litter inside; and for a cat that prefers eliminating in plants, use a sand or very fine litter. For a cat that may be experiencing physical conditions such as muscle pains, experiment with low sided boxes or ramps. Some cats crave privacy and will only eliminate in boxes with hoods, while others feel that they may be ambushed and will not enter a box that is covered. The key to determining your cats preferences is to slowly and patiently analyze your pets behavior and choices. Continue to work with your cat and offer new choices, until you and your pet are satisfied with the perfect combination.

During the process of determining the best elimination scenario, it may be necessary to confine your pet when you are not able to be present and supervise its behaviors. If confinement is necessary, be sure to choose a secure location where the animal has not inappropriately eliminated in the past and provide comfortable bedding, food, water and a litter pan with the preferred substrate. As you find the right combination of elements and your pet begins to eliminate appropriately, the confinement periods should be able to be eliminated.

When analyzing the cause of your pets behavior, be sure to look for factors that may cause stress elimination. Cats are very sensitive to changes in their territory and may stress easily. Strong stress factors such as new pets, a new baby or the loss of a family member may trigger unwanted elimination episodes. Other factors such as new furniture, changes in routine or moving may also cause issues. Finding the perfect combination for your pet, may take time and patience, but your beloved pet will soon be demonstrating model behavior.